Monday, September 26, 2011

Physics

物理学
Physics
 Mechanics
  Kinematics
 
mechanics: the study of the motion of objects. 
 
Kinematics describes the motion of objects using words, diagrams, numbers, graphs, and equations. 
 
Scalars: quantities with magnitude (or numerical value) alone.
 
Vectors: quantities with a magnitude and a direction.
 
abf(x)dx = F(b) - F(a)
f(x)dx = F
 
速度 velocity
位置 position
時間 time
v() = ds()/dt
 
加速度 acceleration
a() = dv()/dt
 
scalar field: scalar value is associated to every point in a space.
 
vector field: a vector is associated to every point in a space.
 
仕事 Work J ジュール
W = F().dx()
W = F() . d() = F.d.cosθ
 
仕事率 power W ワット
P = dW/dt  
 
y = kx 比例する
y = x/k 反比例する
 
質量 しつりょう mass Kg キログラム
 
ニュートンの3法則 
1法則(慣性の法則)
2法則(ニュートンの運動方程式)
F = ma
3法則(作用・反作用の法則)
 
モーメント
M = F() x r()
 
クロス積,ベクトル積Cross product, vector product
 
ドット積,内積 Dot, scalar, inner product
of two vectors a() = [a1, a2, ... , an] and b() = [b1, b2, ... , bn] :
a().b() = Σaibi = a1b1 + a2b2 + ...anbn
a().b() = a.b.cosθ
 
運動エネルギー  kinetic energy
E = mv2/2
位置エネルギー potential energy
 
運動量 linear momentum
p() = mv()
 
力積 りきせき impulse
I = F.t
 
力学 りきがく mechanics
 
エネルギー保存の法則
law of conservation of energy
law of conservation of mass
law of conservation of momentum
 
角速度 かくそくど angular velocity
ω=dΦ/dt
 
核分裂 nuclear fission
核融合 nuclear fusion
 
固体 こたい solid
液体 えきたい liquid
気体 きたい gas
 
電流 electric current I = Q / t
電流 アンペア A electric current
電気量 電荷 クーロン C electric charge
時間 秒 s
 
オームの法則Ohm's law I = V / R
電流
抵抗 ていこう resistance オームΩ
電圧 でんあつ voltageボルト V
 
直列 ちょくれつseries
並列 へいれつ parallel
 
直流 ちょくりゅうdirect current
交流 こうりゅう alternating current
 
周波数 しゅうはすう  
振動数 しんどうすう
f  frequency ヘルツ Hz
 
周期 しゅうき T period 秒 s
f = 1 / T
 
 なみ wave
波長はちょうwavelength λ メートル 山と山の距離
波の速度 v =λ/ T =λf
振幅 しんぷく amplitude 山の高さ
 
反射 はんしゃ reflection
屈折 くっせつ refraction
回折 かいせつ diffraction
干渉 かんしょう interference
 
電磁波 でんじは electromagnetic wave
 
凸レンズ とつ convex lens
凹レンズ おう concave lens
焦点 しょうてん focus
 
真空 しんくう vacuum
 
密度 みつど density
圧力 あつりょく pressure
 
セルシウス度 Celsius
ケルビン Kelvin
T = t + 273
 
ボイル・シャルルの法則
PV/T = k
 
キルヒホッフの第一法則 ∑i = 0
Kirchhoff's Current Law
 
キルヒホッフの第二法則 ∑v = 0
Kirchhoff's Voltage Law
 
磁束 じそく Magnetic flux
Φ B()a() 
 
磁場 Magnetic field
B()
 
電気容量 capacitance farad F
C = Q / V
 
紫外線 しがいせん ultraviolet 
赤外線 せきがいせん infrared
 
陰極 cathode
陽極 anode
 
量子力学 quantum mechanics

Em busca do infinito

Idéias e mais idéias...
Eu não sei se é melhor simplesmente escrever diretamente ou usar o gravador primeiro....
Eu estava pensando em usar o gravador e gravar minha voz antes de escrever.
Mas agora acho que talvez isso não seja uma boa idéia.
Parece que eu consigo escrever mais rápido do que falo....
Eu preciso fazer vídeos para a YouTube mas estou sem a webcâmera.

----------------------------------
Cardinalidade de Georg Cantor. Eu acho que Georg Cantor está errado!
Georg Cantor diz que o conjunto dos números reais e naturais não tem a mesma cardinalidade. Será??? Talvez eles tenham a mesma cardinalidade! Talvez o conjunto dos números reais e o conjunto dos números naturais sejam basicamente o MESMO conjunto!

O conjunto dos números naturais é uma sequência de números, onde o PRÓXIMO número é o número anterior mais um.
Esse conjunto é infinito porque não é possível encontrar o ÚLTIMO número.
Sempre é possível encontrar um número que é maior do que o número corrente.  O maior número é o PRÓXIMO número na sequência, e esse número nunca é o último.

O conjunto dos números reais é exatamente o mesmo. A única diferença é que o PRÓXIMO número é menor do que o número anterior.
É apenas uma questão de semântica.
O conjunto dos números reais pode ser definido como uma sequência para encontrar o MENOR número. Sempre é possível encontrar um número que é menor do que o número anterior. Esse conjunto é infinito porque não é possível encontrar o ÚLTIMO número, o menor de todos os números.Considere o intervalo entre 0 e 2.  Vamos começar a sequência com 2 e definir o PRÓXIMO número como a raiz quadrada do número anterior. O PRÓXIMO número será sempre menor do que o número anterior e maior do que zero.
Essa sequência é infinita, nunca é possível encontrar o ÚLTMO número.E esta sequência é exatamente igual a sequência dos número naturais. Não importa como o próximo número é calculado. Eu considerei o intervalo entre 0 e 2, mas qualquer intervalo poderia ser usado. É uma sequência onde os números se tornam cada vez menores, mas o ÚLTIMO número nunca é alcançado porque sempre é possível encontrar um número que é menor do que o número anterior, sempre é possível encontrar o PRÓXIMO número.

As 2 sequências são basicamente idênticas, a única diferença é uma diferença de semântica, em uma sequência o PRÓXIMO número é chamado de maior, na outra sequência o PRÓXIMO número é chamado de menor.

O conjunto dos números naturais é uma semi-reta que começa com zero e cresce infinitamente.
O conjunto dos números inteiros são 2 semi-retas apontando para lados opostos.
O conjunto dos números racionais e reais é um conjunto de semi-retas onde cada semi-reta busca um número MENOR do que o anterior.

-------------------------
Será que o infinito existe??

Infinito é uma idéia matemática.
Pense em 2 pontos diferentes numa reta. Sempre é possível achar um terceiro ponto que está entre esses 2 pontos.
Vamos dizer que um ponto é 1 e o outro ponto é infinito.
Existe algum ponto que está entre o 1 e o infinito? Sim, por exemplo o ponto 2.
Existe algum ponto que está entre o 2 e o infinito. Sim, por exemplo o ponto 3.

Não importa quão grande o número, sempre existe um número maior que está entre esse número e o infinito.

Mas existe algo que seja infinito na natureza??

Filósofos gregos conceberam a idéia de átomo, "indivisível", a menor partícula de uma substância. Eles partiram da idéia de que é impossível dividir algo infinitamente, mais cedo ou mais tarde você alcalçaria a menor partícula que não pode ser mais dividida.
A idéia de átomo existe na Química. Mas talvez essa idéia seja válida para qualquer grandeza da Física.

Uma das idéias centrais da Mecânica Quântica é de que a luz não é contínua, mas sim formada de partículas chamadas fótons. Essa é exatamente a idéia de átomo. Você pode dividir um feixe de luz em feixes cada vez menores, mas a Mecânica Quântica diz que não é possível dividir infinitamente. Mais cedo ou mais tarde você alcança o menor feixe de luz possível, que é o fóton, Podemos dizer que o fóton é um átomo de luz.
-------------------------------------

O que é o infinito?
Será que o infinito realmente existe?

Na escola aprendemos que o conjunto dos números naturais é infinito.
A sequência 0,1,2,3,4,... etc é infinita porque a sequência nunca acaba. Sempre é possível achar um número que é maior do que o número anterior.
Imagine 2 pontos numa reta, o ponto A e o ponto B. A Geometria diz que para 2 pontos diferentes numa reta, sempre existe um terceiro ponto intermediário,um ponto C, que está entre os pontos A e B.
Isso significa que entre o ponto C e B, também existe um ponto intermediário D. Novamente entre o ponto D e B também existe um ponto E assim infinitamente.
A sequência de de pontos C,D,E... é uma sequência infinita que se aproxima do ponto B sem nunca alcançar o ponto B.

Vamos chamar o ponto A de zero, e o ponto B de infinito.
Um ponto intermediário poderia ser o ponto 1.
Entre o ponto 1 e infinito podemos ter o ponto 2.
Entre o ponto 2 e infinito podemos ter o ponto 3 e assimm infinitamente.
A sequência de pontos 0,1,2,3... é infinita sem nunca alcançar o último ponto.

Vamos chamar o ponto A de 1 e o ponto B de zero.
Entre o ponto 1 e o ponto zero podemos ter o ponto 1/2.
Entre o ponto 1/2 e o ponto zero podemos ter o ponto 1/4 e assim infinitamente.
A sequência de pontos 1,1/2, 1/4... é infinita sem nunca alcançar zero.
----------------------------------------------

Saturday, September 24, 2011

music

http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Beginners_Music_Theory



Treble Clef
second line from the bottom:G




Bass Clef
second line from the top:F




whole note










half note













♩quarter note











♪♫ eighth note












♬sixteenth note












1 whole note = 2 half notes = 4 quarter notes = 8 eighth notes = 16 sixteenth notes. 


whole rest













half rest














quarter rest









eighth rest










sixteenth rest




clef  /klɛf/ a symbol placed upon a staff to indicate the name and pitch of the notes corresponding to its lines and spaces.

staff  /stæf, stɑf/ the system of horizontal lines grouped into sets of five (four in the case of plainsong) upon which music is written. The spaces between them are also used, being employed in conjunction with a clef in order to give a graphic indication of pitch

pitch /pɪtʃ/  How high or how low

octave /ɒktɪv, -teɪv/  interval from one A to the next A

Time signature specifies how many beats are in each measure and which note value constitutes one beat.

The beat is the basic unit of time in music.

Bar (or measure) is a segment of time defined by a given number of beats. 




2: 2 beats in every bar
4: each beat is one quarter note long.
3/4 is 3 quarter notes per measure.
5/2 is 5 half notes per measure.
6/8 is 6 eighth notes per measure. 


























Play the note 1/2 step up (Sharp)
Play the note 1/2 step down (Flat)
  Play the note normally

Tuesday, September 20, 2011

I still don't understand Facebook!

I still don't understand Facebook.

I have opened a Facebook account some months ago, but I still don't know exactly how to use it.

What is the idea behind Facebook? Is it to keep in contact with friends?

  How to keep in contact with friends?
  That is quite an interesting problem and I have been thinking about it these days.
  My solution is to make a list of friends and then write letters to each one of them, one by one. When you reach the end of the list, you start again from the beginning of the list.
  Some friends may have an email address, others may have a website, others only an ordinary postal address.
  It doesn't really matter how you contact them, you just write a small message and send to them.
  Some friends may answer, others may never answer.In that case maybe it is a good idea to have 2 lists of friends, one of friends who answer, the other of friends who don't answer. From time to time you can look at the list of friends who don't answer and cross some of them off the list. Since they don't bother keeping in contact, it is a waste of time writing to them.
  Is it a good idea to phone people? Phone can be such a hassle. I never call people, except for emergencies.
  The problem of keeping in touch happens when you have nothing in common. You don't live together, you don't work together, you don't study together, you don't go out together.
  And yet, you still want to keep the friendship alive.
  For me the best solution is to write, either an email or a letter.
The problem is to have the discipline to keep writing letters to your friends.

  But let's go back to Facebook.
  Does Facebook solve the problem of keeping in touch with friends? I don't think so.
  Facebook is a social media site. A social media site is a solution to email spam. Spam is the one single biggest problem of email. In a social media site, spam is virtually inexistent because people who spam can be easily blocked.
  But Facebook is not the only social media site, YouTube, Blogger can also replace email.

  Facebook has some advantages over YouTube and Blogger:
  - it allows blogging, microblogging and posting of pictures. YouTube allows only video.
  - it allows posting external links (URL addresses). YouTube doesn't allow URLs in the comments.
  - Blogger was never intended to be a social media site, there is no way of sending private messages or replying to comments.

  Why use Facebook?
  - to talk to friends who like to use Facebook
  - to make new friends

  Why microblog?
  Why indeed? Facebook allows you to post "stories", basically microblogs, with the option to include external links, videos, pictures. Is there any reason to microblog, except to say you are alive?
  Twitter is based entirely on microblogging, but I never microblog on Twitter. Instead I use Twitter to chat. I search for a random word and just start talking to whoever may be online. Most people ignore me, but some talk back. Apparently you cannot do the same on Facebook.

  When your friends microblog (post stories) on Facebook, their microblogs appear on your "News Feed".
  Because I can't find a reason to microblog myself, I also fail to understand why I should read the microblogs of my friends.
  Sometimes they may talk about things that interest me, but only sometimes.
  Microblogs make sense when they are the starting point of a conversation. Is that why people microblog? Because they are expecting a reply? Should I also microblog to get a reply?

  When I want to talk I send a direct message to a particular person. The chances of getting a reply are much higher than posting a microblog to the general public.

  Some people may ask: how can I blog but not microblog? What I am writing right now is a blog. Why can't I microblog?
  Because when I blog I am actually talking to myself. That is why a blog is so long. I am putting on paper (or more exactly on the computer monitor) all my thoughts trying to find a solution that may be inside my own head.  I write to put some order in my thoughts. I can't do this with a short microblog.
  When I write a blog I am not really expecting a reply, even though I welcome comments. The main reason is just to let my thoughts out.

  How to make new friends on Facebook?
  Most users will allow you to send messages, even when they are not your friends. The biggest problem is to find people who may have common interests.
  Facebook allows you to search for name, hometown,school... but not interests...
  It seems that the only practical way to look for people on Facebook is by pictures. Just try to talk to people that posts cute pictures... There seems to be no other way...

  Let's go back to microblog. Why microblog? What is a microblog? How to microblog? Should I reply to my friends's microblogs? Is microblog a waste of time? Is Facebook a waste of time? Sometimes it looks like it.
Or is there any other way to use Facebook?

  I understand the idea of subscription. Let's suppose your friend has a website. Instead of visiting this website every day to see if it was updated, you subscribe to the website, meaning that you are notified every time the website is updated. You receive the notifications in the same you receive emails. You go check the website only when you receive the notifications. I have subscribed to several websites using Google reader. Google reader checks RSS feeds, which some websites provide to notify updates. Unhappily not all websites provide RSS feeds.

  Facebook "stories" (microblogs) pretty much resemble the notifications. The difference is that the "stories" are the updates themselves, not just the notifications. If you go to your friend's page,you will find exactly the same stories there. One big problem happens when you have several friends and most of them publish microblogs. All these microblogs appear sequentially in one single column called "News feed".
There may be so many of them you will probably end up not seeing most of them.

  That is one crucial difference to Google reader design, which is much superior. On Google reader you never lose a notification. Each subscription occupies only one line, that you can expand or collapse at will. For each subscription you can see all notifications, that again occupies only one line that you can expand to see the content.

  But I am diverging. That is just a problem of design. Facebook has a very confusing design, but even if they improved, to a more clean, maybe Twitter-like design, I think things would still be pointless.

Sunday, September 18, 2011

Google+ problems

Google has launched Google+, a site that resembles Facebook.

A friend of mine invited me to the site, and... so far she is my only friend in the site. 

There are some problems with Google+.

How can people add me on Google+?
Let's suppose someone wants to add me on Google+. How can they do that? How can people find me? Is there a URL address that I can tell them? If they search for my name there may be a long list of similar names, there is no guarantee they will be able to find me.


How can I find people?
I cannot force my friends to join Google+. They may or may not join, that is their decision. What I usually do is to find people who are already on Google+ (or any other social network site). 

But how can I do that? There is a box with "Type a name". I don't look for people by name. I don't care about people's names. Most people use an alias anyway. 

I look for people by interest. I want to find and talk to  people who have the same interests I have. I want to talk to people who have watched Dexter, read Michael Crichton, seen Harry Potter, for example. 

I want to look for people by content. I want to FIRST read their blogs, see their pictures, wach their videos, and THEN if I like the content, contact the people who posted the content.
How can I do that on Google+?


Tuesday, September 13, 2011

Why write fiction?

Why write fiction?

Because you are free to say whatever you want.

You can create a crazy character that says all the things you have always wanted to say but were too embarassed to. You have just to be sure to kill that character before the end of the story.

There are many things we would like to tell the whole world but we are too embarassed to say, because they may be illegal, immoral, embarassing, offensive, shocking, etc.

How can you criticize the government? How can you defend ideas that are highly impopular in the society? How can you tell the whole world about the times you were fired, rejected, depressed, embarassed?

In order to survive we have to be hypocrites. We have to pretend to be honest, good, virtuous, friendly, balanced. We have to open a Facebook account and post lots of smiling pictures.

Do writers write to entertain the readers, sell books and make money?
Yes, but that is probably not the main reason writers write. Making money is not a reason strong enough to write. There are many other better ways to make money.  This kind of profession is tough. Unless your name is J. K. Rowling, chances are that you are not going to survive by writing.

Writers write to release the demons inside their souls. Writers write to look for salvation. The writer aims to find order and peace of the soul by letting out on paper all the chaos inside the mind. Writing is a confession.

How can you do this? One way is by being anonymous. The other way is by writing fiction. You create a character, most cases a villain, and make him say all the terrible, horrible things you don't dare to say in public. That is OK, since the character is a villain, he will be killed at the end of the story. And because it is fiction " any resemblance to actual persons or facts is purely coincidental".

"Fiction is just entertainment. Don't take it seriously. Whatever the characters may say, they do not reflect the writer's opinions."

I have never written fiction. Never found a reason to write fiction. Until now.
Because there are severe limitations in writing non-fiction. You have to be a hypocrite when writing non-fiction. Hypocrisy leads to loneliness. To be unable to say the things you are really thinking. To not find a friend to share your burdens. To be unable to talk about the things that really matter.

Friday, September 9, 2011

魔女のジニー



宇宙飛行士のトニー君はどうしたことか宇宙ならぬ南海の小島にたどり着いて摩訶不思議な壺を見つけた。

その壺から美しい煙と共に現れた の が なんと可愛らしい魔女のジニー。

あなた の そば なら どこまでも と とうとう トニー君 の 家 まで ついて きて しまった。

何せ魔女の事、ちょっと可愛いウインクする だけ で 何でも かんで も お望みしだい。

さて どんな こと に あいなります こと やら...


トニー: ジニー。良いニュース聞かせるぞ。記念日おめでとう!
ジニー:嬉しいわ。有難う!覚えていたのね?
トニー:君に出会ったのは三年前の今日だよ。あれから??どう君?気に入った?
ジニー:まぁ。これは前から欲しかったのよ。
トニー:特製?暖房機?
ジニー:嬉しいわ。本当。大好き。大好きよ。
トニー:だけど苦心したよ。何を送ろうかと思って。
ジニー:あたしも用意したの。
トニー:僕への?どこ?
ジニー:窓を開けて。
トニー:いや、ちょっと待って。君からのプレゼントは無駄だから要らないと話した筈だよ。
ジニー:早く開けて!
トニー:ナイアガラの滝??滝のプレゼントか?
ジニー:三周年記念日おめでとう!

ジニー:良い眺めでしょう?
トニー:元の所に戻して!
ジニー:あたしが滝を持って来た訳じゃないのよ、殿!この家を動かしたのよ。(??)殿はここで二週間ばかりゆっくり休養をとれば良いわ。
トニー:ジニー!そのアイディアはとても結構だよ。気持ちは有難い。でも、とても二週間は休めない。休みは今日一日だけ。いいこと(??)先ず君、この家を返してくれよ!
ジニー:??は御用だわ!
トニー:今日は良いプランをね、君が喜ぶプランを立ててある。
ジニー:どこへ行くの?
トニー:先ず一流レストランへ行ってね...ちょっと待って。
ベローズ大佐:トニー、ベローズ大佐だ。10分以内に来てくれ。
トニー:え?今日ですか?
ベローズ大佐:明日なら十分以内なんて言うか?
トニー:今日は(??)でもプランを立てまして。
ベローズ大佐:もう九分になった。
トニー:用件を言って下さい。今この電話で処理しますから。
ベローズ大佐:電話じゃ駄目だ!後もう八分。
トニー:あ、大佐!
ジニー:どうかしたの?
トニー:いや、どうせ、書類かなんかにサインするのを忘れたんだろう。一番いいドレスを着ていて、二十分に帰る。
ジニー:ちゃんと用意して置くわ!
トニー:帽子どこ?
ジニー:ここにある。

トニー:ベローズ大佐、遅くなりました。
ベローズ大佐:一分遅刻だよ。
トニー:何かミスをやったのなら今すぐ誤りますから。
ベローズ大佐:落ち着き給え。君はミスなど犯していない。
トニー:弁護人を ??軍事法廷に出廷致します。いや、ミスじゃない?
ベローズ大佐:これから犯すかも知れんよ。今からね、一時間後にワシントン行きのジェットに乗り、フィルムを運ぶ。
トニー:このフィルム?今日は僕は駄目でありまして、
ベローズ大佐:ネルソン少佐

Wednesday, September 7, 2011

What should I write today?
Today I don't have much to say...

Today I was reading some articles on the internet about logic.

I had a vague recollection about the subject from my college days, but I needed some refreshing.

I wanted to review logic because I found some articles about gout that are quite contradictory. Is all medical literature contradictory and illogical?? I have a feeling they are, since only mathematicians bother to study logic.
Logic is considered a branch of mathematics, so most of it is written for mathematicians by mathematicians.

What is the relationship between gout and hyperuricemia? One website says hyperuricemia is the CAUSE of gout, but then, on the same article it states that "gout occurs, however, nearly half of the time without hyperuricemia", and "most people with raised uric acid levels never develop gout".... It sounds contradictory!!

And what is the definition of hyperuricemia?? "Hyperuricemia is defined as a plasma urate level greater than 420 μmol/L (7.0 mg/dL) in males and 360 μmol/L (6.0 mg/dL) in females." Where do these numbers come from??

My idea is that the normal level of uric acid in the blood could be slightly different from person to person.

But I am done with it. I really should be reading something else.

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I was writing a series of Japanese lessons for Brazilian people, but at least for now, there  has been very few views...  As far as I know only one person is reading those lessons. And my revenue from  Adsense is not improving, so I am not sure if I should continue writing those lessons. No money, no work, unhappily...

Saturday, September 3, 2011

Correndo todos os dias

20110724 dom  Será que vou conseguir? Gostaria de correr todos os dias mas acabo ficando com preguiça. Estou tomando remédio para aliviar a dor, meu tornozelo não estava doendo hoje, resolvi correr um pouco. Não está mais inflamado. Não sei se isso é bom ou ruim para o tornozelo, mas vou tentar correr a partir de hoje. Todo dia. Hoje corri em volta do quarteirão.

20110725 seg 21:30-22:01 Hoje corri logo depois de chegar do serviço. Estou pensando em correr sempre um trecho diferente. Hoje corri em volta do ichiba.

segterquaquisexsabdom
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20110726 ter 21:10 21:45 Hoje corri em volta do quarteirão mesmo. Fiquei com preguiça de ver o mapa para procurar outro itinerário...

20110726 qua 22:00 22:30 Novamente corri em volta do quarteirao. Estava ansioso para voltar para casa. Eu preciso verificar coisas na internet, nao tenho muito tempo para correr. Amanhã vou ao hospital ver o resultado do exame de sangue. O que vou fazer em dia de chuva? Não correr? Ou correr na chuva, sem óculos, à noite?

20110730 Não corri nem ontem, nem hoje.  Cheguei muito tarde em casa.

20110801 Meu tornozelo está inflamando...Mas fui correr assim mesmo. Hoje no almoço comi apenas sanduíche de alface.

20010903 Eu corri anteontem na centro de esportes. 30 minutos na esteira ergométrica à 10 km/h. Eu não sei se isso é bom ou ruim para gota... Estou lendo alguns artigos sobre gota, eles recomendam não se esforçar muito fisicamente...

Friday, September 2, 2011

How to teach English to Japanese people

One major problem Japanese people have with English is the pronunciation.
There are many sounds in English that don't exist in the Japanese language.
Most Japanese people end up replacing those sounds with ones they can pronounce, resulting in the characteristic (and horrible) Japanese-English accent.

My suggestion to teach correct pronunciation is to use IPA (International Phonetic Alphabet).

Most English textbooks don't use IPA to show pronunciation. Most English teachers don't even know IPA. They either rely on memorization, by just speaking the words slowly and hoping the student will memorize the correct pronunciation, or by using the infamous katakana.

IPA in its full format is too complicated for practical uses. The developers of IPA wish to cover all sounds of all languages in the world. For English teaching this in unnecessary.

But it is possible to have a simplified IPA that covers only the English language.
Most dictionaries (especially Oxford dictionaries) already use some form of simplified IPA to show pronunciation.

Thursday, September 1, 2011

Gota


http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gota_(doen%C3%A7a)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gout
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0001459/
http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%97%9B%E9%A2%A8

Gout is a disorder of purine metabolism,and occurs when its final metabolite, uric acid, crystallizes in the form of monosodium urate, precipitating in joints, on tendons, and in the surrounding tissues.
痛風(つうふう)は、高尿酸血症を原因とした関節炎を来す疾患。

にょうさん【尿酸】uric acid 有機酸の一。無味無臭の白色の結晶で、水にごくわずか溶ける。動物の排出物中に多く含まれ、鳥類や陸生爬虫類では窒素代謝の最終生成物であるが、人間ではプリン化合物の分解によって生成。化学式C5H4N4O3

りくせい【陸生】terrestrial
はちゅうるい【爬虫類】reptiles
プリン【purine】複素 環式 化合物の一。環内に窒素原子を含む。無色の針状 結晶。天然には存在しないが、その誘導体は広く動植物に分布。化学式C5H4N4
しんじょう【針状】針のように、細く先がとがっている状態。はりじょう。

- hiperuricemia (elevação dos níveis de ácido úrico no sangue)
- deposição de cristais do ácido úrico nos tecidos e articulações.
- recurrent attacks of acute inflammatory arthritis: a red, tender, hot, swollen joint.
- It is caused by elevated levels of uric acid in the blood which crystallize and are deposited in joints, tendons, and surrounding tissues.
- Diagnosis: Identification of monosodium urate (MSU) crystals in synovial (joint) fluid or a tophus. Under polarized light microscopy, they have a needle-like morphology and strong negative birefringence. Gout occurs nearly half of the time without hyperuricemia, and most people with raised uric acid levels never develop gout.

Tests:
- Synovial fluid analysis (shows uric acid crystals)
- Uric acid - blood
- Joint x-rays (may be normal)
- Synovial biopsy
- Uric acid - urine

reumatismo: doença caracterizada por uma fluxão dolorosa das articulações, dos músculos, das vísceras, etc.

fluxão: 1. Congestão ou corrimento de humores. 2. Defluxo, constipação.

Cause of gout: hyperuricemia + ??
Cause of hyperuricemia:
- genetic
- overproduction of acid uric
- renal underexcretion of urate, the salts of uric acid. (90% of cases)
- Diet (12% of gout cases) consumption of alcohol, fructose-sweetened drinks, meat, and seafood

Signs and symptoms
- fatigue and a high fever.
- artrite iniciada durante a madrugada, (because of lower body temperature)
- inflamação articular  com calor, rubor, edema (inchaço) e extrema dor.

Pode desenvolver para:
- tophi: hard, painless deposits of uric acid crystals.Tophi are lumps below the skin around joints or in other places. They may drain chalky material. Tophi usually develop only after a patient has had the disease for many years.These tophi occur in 30% of those who are untreated for five years, often in the helix of the ear, over the olecranon processes, or on the Achilles tendons. With aggressive treatment, they may dissolve.
- kidneys stone formation
- urate nephropathy
- hypertension, diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, and renal and cardiovascular disease
Without treatment, episodes of acute gout may develop into chronic gout with destruction of joint surfaces, joint deformity, and painless tophi.  Kidney stones also frequently complicate gout, affecting between 10 and 40% of people, and occur due to low urine pH promoting the precipitation of uric acid. Other forms of chronic renal dysfunction may occur.

- duração de 5 a 7 dias com resolução espontânea, entrando num período intercrítico (assintomático), até a próxima crise (período 3 meses a 2 anos).
- 60% of people will have a second attack within one year.

- hiperuricemia. Hyperuricemia (plasma urate level)
mais de 7mg/dl para homem (420 μmol/L)
mais de 6mg/dl para mulheres (360 μmol/L)

O tratamento da gota:
- orientar a dieta,
- tratar as doenças associadas,
- tratar as crises
- normalizar os níveis de ácido úrico no sangue.

Treatment during an attack:
- analgésicos, colchicina (colchicine), nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs):ibuprofen, naproxen, or indomethacin, steroids
- Ice applied for 20 to 30 minutes several times a day.
- strong painkillers:codeine, hydrocodone, and oxycodone.
- Corticosteroids.

colchicine: a pale-yellow crystalline alkaloid extracted from seeds or corms of the autumn crocus. It is used in the treatment of gout and to create polyploid plants by inhibiting chromosome separation during meiosis. Formula: C22H25NO6

Tratamento após o ataque
Evitar:
- proteínas: carnes vermelhas, frutos do mar, miúdos, embutidos
- bebidas alcoólicas
- fructose
- tea?
- purine-rich foods:  anchovies, sardines, oils, herring, organ meat (liver, kidney, and sweetbreads), legumes (dried beans and peas), gravies, mushrooms, spinach, asparagus, cauliflower, consommé, and baking or brewer's yeast.
- fatty foods: salad dressings, ice cream, and fried foods.

Recomendar:
- coffee?
- vitamin C
- dairy products
- physical fitness
- Eat enough carbohydrates

reduçãode ácido úrico:
xanthine oxidase inhibitor: alopurinol (allopurinol),febuxostat,
benzobromarona,
uricosurics: probenecid, sulfinpyrazone
They are not usually commenced until one to two weeks after an acute attack has resolved, due to theoretical concerns of worsening the attack
痛風 発作がおこってから1ヶ月は、尿酸値を下げる薬を服用してはならない。これは、この時期には尿酸値を下げる薬が痛風 発作をひきおこす こと があるからである。

Lowering uric acid levels can cure the disease.

Insulin is a hormone central to regulating carbohydrate and fat metabolism in the body. Insulin causes cells in the liver, muscle, and fat tissue to take up glucose from the blood, storing it as glycogen in the liver and muscle.
Insulin stops the use of fat as an energy source by inhibiting the release of glucagon. With the exception of the metabolic disorder diabetes mellitus and Metabolic syndrome, insulin is provided within the body in a constant proportion to remove excess glucose from the blood, which otherwise would be toxic. When blood glucose levels fall below a certain level, the body begins to use fat as an energy source through glycogenolysis, for example, by transfer of lipids from adipose tissue to the liver for mobilization as an energy source. As its level is a central metabolic control mechanism, its status is also used as a control signal to other body systems (such as amino acid uptake by body cells).

A differential diagnosis is a systematic method used to identify unknowns.
- process of elimination
- make a list of possible diagnoses, then attempt to remove diagnoses from the list until one diagnosis remains.
Removing diagnoses from the list is done by making observations and using tests that should have different results, depending on which diagnosis is correct.

septic:infected.
sepsis:invasion of the body by pathogenic microorganisms or their toxins.
steroid: any of a large group of fat-soluble organic compounds, as the sterols, bile acids, and sex hormones, most of which have specific physiological action.
prophylaxis: the preventing of disease.
prognosis: a forecast or prognostication.
----------------------------------------
Some people may develop chronic gout. Those with chronic arthritis develop joint damage and loss of motion in the joints. They will have joint pain and other symptoms most of the time.

purine  1.a white, crystalline compound, C5H4N4 , from which is derived a group of compounds including uric acid, xanthine, and caffeine.
2.one of several purine derivatives, especially the bases adenine and guanine, which are fundamental constituents of nucleic acids.



がんゆう【含有】成分や内容の一部として含みもつこと。
そくぶ【足部】足の部分。
はっけっきゅう【白血球】a white blood corpuscle; a leukocyte
かりゅう【顆粒】小さなつぶになっているもの。
こうげん【抗原】an antigen 生体内に入ると抗体をつくらせる原因となる物質。一度抗体ができると、次に侵入した同じ原因物質と特異的に反応する。異種のたんぱく質や多糖類・毒素・微生物などが抗原となりうる。
マクロファージ【macrophage】大食細胞。動物体のすべての組織に存在するアメーバ状の大形細胞。細菌や異物を取り込んで消化するとともに、その抗原としての情報をT細胞などに伝える。
こうちゅうきゅう【好中球】白血球の一。細胞内にある顆粒(かりゅう)が中性色素に染まるもの。食作用が強いので、大食細胞に対して小食細胞ともいう。好中性白血球。
ほしょく【捕食】生物が他の生物をとらえて食うこと。

この状況においては、白血球群のうち、特に好中球が尿酸結晶を攻撃(捕食活動)を行うことが広く知られている。

いがい【遺骸】死骸(しがい)。なきがら。遺体。
けっかん【血管】a blood vessel
えんしょう【炎症】生体が微生物の侵入や物理的・化学的刺激などを受けて、発熱・発赤・はれ・痛みなどの症状を呈すること。

好中球による尿酸結晶捕食活動が激化すると、その活動による過大なエネルギーや、尿酸を抱え込んで死亡した好中球の遺骸そのものによる影響などから、血管壁がダメージを受けて大きな炎症を発生する。

当然に、当該 部位 周囲の神経 組織をも相当に刺激し、患者は「内側からの激痛」を感じることとなる。

また、血中 含有 尿酸の濃度が急激に低下した場合においても、痛風 発作が生じることが知られている。

えきがく【疫学】epidemiology 人間集団を対象として、病気の原因や本態を究明する医学の一分野。感染症の原因や動向を調べる学問であったが、今日では、公害など広く健康を損ねる原因などを研究対象とする。
そがい【阻害】さまたげること。じゃますること。
きんき【禁忌】忌(い)み嫌って、慣習的に禁止したり避けたりすること。また、そのもの。タブー。

ただし後述の通り、疫学的には、血中 尿酸 値の上昇とともに血中尿酸値の急降下も、痛風 発作の要因であることは広く知られており、痛風 発作 時における尿酸 生成 阻害 剤や尿酸 排出 促進 剤などの服用は禁忌とされていることが多い。

はくらく【剥落】はがれて落ちること。

必ずしも恒常的な高 尿酸 血症 患者がすべて痛風発作を起こすわけではなく、そのメカニズムは解明しきれていないが、よく知られている発作のきっかけとしては、脱水 症状に伴う急激な尿酸値の変動、物理的衝撃による結晶の剥落、不適切なタイミングでの尿酸コントロール薬の投与、激しすぎるスポーツなどが考えられている。

つういん【痛飲】大いに酒を飲むこと。
にゅうさん【乳酸】lactic acid

ひきがね【引き金】trigger
じんぞうけっせき【腎臓結石】a kidney stone; a renal calculus
げきれつ【激烈】violent
せきしゅつ【析出】deposition
こうはつ【好発】発生する度合いが高いこと。
足趾 母趾 ?

症状
関節に激烈な痛みが起こり、発熱を伴う。体温の低い部位ほど尿酸が析出しやすいため、痛風発作は足趾(母趾)に好発する。

たいてい【大抵】generally, mostly;usually
ひざ【膝】a knee

ぞうあく【増悪】病状などがさらに悪化すること。
こっせつ【骨折】a broken bone; a bone fracture
じかい【耳介】頭部の両側にあって外耳孔を囲んでいる貝殻状の突起。哺乳類にあり、音を集める働きがある。耳。耳殻(じかく)。
かいがら【貝殻】a shell
けっせつ【結節】皮膚にできる発疹(ほっしん)のうち、丘疹(きゅうしん)よりも大きく腫瘤(しゅりゅう)よりも小さいもの。
ひか【皮下】皮膚のすぐ下。

また、耳介などに痛風 結節と呼ばれる皮下 結節を作ることがあり、これが診断の助けとなる。

こつずい【骨髄】骨の内腔を満たしている柔らかい組織。bone marrow

X線では骨髄腫のように"punched out"と呼ばれる骨破壊像が見える。

かんべつ【鑑別】よく調べて、種類・性質・真贋・質のよしあしなどを見分けること。

疫学

患者の90%以上が男性。

かとう【果糖】果実や蜂蜜(はちみつ)などに含まれる単糖類。ぶどう糖と結合すると蔗糖(しょとう)となる。甘みは糖類中最高。左旋性があるので、左旋糖・レブロースともいう。分子式C6H12O6 D-フルクトース。fructose
はいにょう【排尿】尿を体外に排出すること。

発症の引き金: 精神的ストレス・水分不足・フルクトース(果糖)・アルコール・プリン体

検査
痛風を発症する患者では、少なくとも非 発作 時には血液 検査での高尿酸 血症が見られるが、25%の患者で発作時に尿酸値が正常である。

せんし【穿刺】体外から血管・体腔内や内臓に注射針を刺すこと。検査のため体液などを吸い取ったり、体内にたまった体液やうみを排出したり、治療のため薬物を注入したりするのに行われる。

関節 穿刺液 検査における多形 核 細胞の増加と尿酸 結晶の証明(これが一番大事だが、感度は100%ではない。85%程度とする文献がある)。

たいしょう【対症】症状に対処すること。
りょうほう【療法】治療のしかた。治療の方法。

治療
対症療法
好中球の活動 抑制、炎症 鎮痛、患部の管理、緩やかな尿酸の排出、尿酸値 上昇 要因の排除、の5手法併用を以って行う。

けいこう【経口】口を通ること。薬などを口から与えること。

好中球の活動 抑制
コルヒチン製剤力価0.5mgを、発作を起こすに足る程度の好中球の活動の抑制が果たされるまで、概ね4時間以上の間隔で経口 投与することが多い。

ちんつう【鎮痛】痛みをしずめること。
しょうえん【消炎】炎症を消し去ること。

消炎 鎮痛
現状では、非ステロイド系 鎮痛 消炎 薬を使用することが多い。例えば、力価60mgのロキソプロフェンナトリウム製剤を、その投入が不要と認められるまで、概ね8時間以上の間隔で経口投与することが多い。

いへき【胃壁】胃の内壁。
ねんまく【粘膜】消化管・呼吸器・排出器・生殖器などの内壁の、常に粘液で湿っている組織。
ねんえき【粘液】ねばりけのある液体。

ロキソプロフェン製剤 服用にあたっては、胃壁へのダメージを避ける目的で、テプレノン製剤・レバミピド製剤などの胃 粘膜 保護 剤を併せて処方することが多い。

りんしょう【臨床】病床に臨んで診療すること。患者に接して診察・治療を行うこと。

NSAIDs(非ステロイド系抗 炎症 鎮痛 薬)と呼ばれる種類の痛み止めの薬で対症 療法を行う。インドメタシンなどに、臨床研究に基づく科学的 根拠がある(根拠に基づいた医療)。

こどう【鼓動】心臓が血液を送り出すために規則的に収縮・拡大すること。また、その音。
みゃくうつ【脈打つ】 心臓の鼓動に合わせて動脈が振動する。
ずきずき 傷口などが脈打つように絶えず痛むさま。
とうつう【疼痛】ずきずき痛むこと。うずき。

疼痛が強い患者では、ステロイドの全身 投与や、単 関節炎 患者では関節内 投与が極めて有効である。

おしん【悪心】気持ちが悪くて、吐きそうな感じ。吐き気。

最近では、最初にNSAIDsではなくステロイドを服用したほうが、効果は同等で副作用(悪心、消化管出血など)は少ないとする報告がある。

れいりょう【冷涼】ひんやりとして涼しいこと。また、そのさま。
あんせい【安静】病気治療のため、静かに寝ていること。
じゅうとく【重篤】病状が非常に重いこと。

患部の管理
発作を起こしている関節ないし周辺部位は、安静および冷涼に保持する必要があり、患部を動かしたり熱温する行為は炎症を重篤化させることが知られている。

くどう【駆動】動力を伝えて動かすこと。

特に、発作時 患部の駆動および温度 上昇の双方を同時にもたらす入浴は禁忌とする。

医療 資格を持たない一般人が、安易に民間 療法的な発想で、痛風 発作と同様に関節部に痛みを伴う関節リウマチの慢性期 療法 等の温泉 療法を連想し入浴を行うと、痛風 発作の症状をほぼ100%悪化させる。

はいせつ【排泄】不要な物質を体外に出すこと。排出。
はいにょう【排尿】尿を体外に排出すること。

緩やかな尿酸の排出
体内の尿酸を自然に排泄する手段として、水分を多めに摂り排尿を促す。


はいじょ【排除】おしのけて そこ から なくすこと。
のうか【濃化】濃くなること。また、濃くすること。

尿酸値 上昇 要因 の排除
血内の尿酸を濃化させる行為を慎む。具体的には、業務・対人などストレスを発生させる行為の中止、負荷のかかる運動の中止(負荷のかかる運動によって死滅した筋細胞はプリン体の主要な供給源のひとつである)、プリン体を多く含む食材の摂食中止、飲酒の中止などを行う。

食事療法
高尿酸 血症・痛風の治療ガイドラインの「生活指導」では、特に「1日400mgを目安にしたプリン体の摂取 制限」が示されている。

こい【濃い】色合いが強い。
のうたん【濃淡】色や味などの濃いことと、うすいこと。
じゅうそく【充足】十分に補い満たすこと。また、満ち足りること。

予防
高 尿酸 血症 患者 においては、その治療方法そのものが、すなわち痛風 発作の予防 方法のほぼ全てを充足するほか、非 高尿酸 血症者においても、日常において血中 尿酸の急激な濃淡を起こさないような体調・ストレスの管理を要する。

尿酸 産生 抑制 剤であるアロプリノールや、尿酸 排泄 促進 剤であるベンズブロマロン(分泌後 再吸収 阻害剤)、プロベネシド(分泌前 再吸収 阻害剤)を予防的に経口 投与し、高尿酸 血症を改善する。

これらは、高 尿酸 血症の原因が、尿酸 産生過剰によるものか尿酸 排泄 能力 低下によるものか、あるいは薬効の患者への影響度などを見極めて使い分ける。

ゆういん【誘引】誘い入れること。
かんかい【寛解】病気の症状が、一時的あるいは継続的に軽減した状態。または見かけ上消滅した状態。
すいしょう【推奨】すぐれている点をあげて、人にすすめること。

血中 尿酸 値の濃化・淡化を問わず、その急激な変動そのものが痛風発作の原因となるため、これらの薬剤については、急激な尿酸値低下による発作の悪化や再発を誘引せぬよう、痛風 発作の発現中ならびに寛解 直後 数週間の服用は推奨されていない。

『高 尿酸 血症・痛風の治療ガイドライン』では、「適度な量の飲酒」、「プリン体の摂取を控えめにする」、「十分な水分 摂取」、「尿をアルカリ性に保つ」、「運動」、「ストレスの解消」がすすめられている。

ぜんちょう【前兆】何かが起こる前に現れるしるし。まえぶれ。きざし。

その他
痛風 患者は発作の前兆を感じることがあると言われ、そのときコルヒチンを飲むと発作を予防する効果があるとされている。しかしこの治療法に臨床研究に基づく根拠はない。

かゆみ【痒み】an itch; itching
けいび【軽微】被害・損害などの程度がわずかであること。また、そのさま。多く、予想・推定より軽い場合に用いる。

ただし、発作の初期 症状である発作 発現部に感じる「違和感」や、ごく軽い内部から感じる痒み等については、痛風 発作の初発 患者のほとんどがこれを軽微な思い過ごしと見過ごして発作を激痛による歩行 困難となるまで重篤化させるが、再発 患者は既にその初期症状の特徴である患部の微妙な違和感を体験しているため、痛風 発作 発生のごく初期にいち早く診療を受けてコルヒチンを処方され服用して、激痛が発生する前に発作の進行を抑制・寛解させるケースが非常に多い。

こりる【懲りる】失敗して ひどい目にあい、もう やる まいと思う。
こうむる【被る/蒙る】災いなどを身に受ける。

これは、痛風 発作の激痛に懲りた経験のある患者にとって再度くりかえし過酷な発作を蒙りたくないと考えるゆえの当然の行動によるものであり、あくまで発作歴のある患者が発作 初期の患部の違和感を素早く感知して早期に対症 療法を受けたことによる成果であって、「前兆」「予感」等ではなく発作の「自覚症状」に もとづく もの であり、その診療 経緯は当然に診察医のカルテにも記録されるので、疫学的に反映させることが可能なものである。

わずらう【患う】病気で苦しむ。
たんぱくしつ【蛋白質】protein
しょうちょう【小腸】small intestine

民間 療法と喫茶の歴史
水分を多めに摂る事で、非常な痛みを伴う症状の発生を予防できる事は、古くから経験によって知られていた。これは排尿によって血中 尿酸 濃度 を下げる効果があるため、関節への尿酸 結晶の発生を避けられるためである。

りにょう【利尿】diuretic 尿をよく出るようにすること。

特に利尿 作用のある緑茶・紅茶・コーヒー等を多量に摂取して大量に排尿すれば、それだけ大量の尿酸が体外に排泄される事にも繋がるため、より症状 発生の予防ができるとされている。

にょうろ【尿路】尿が排出される通路。

しかし利尿 作用も度が過ぎると、脱水 症状を起こして症状が悪化したり、尿路 結石が出来る可能性もある。

きっさ【喫茶】茶を飲むこと。
しょうれい【奨励】ある事柄を、よいこととして、それをするように人に強く勧めること。

ヨーロッパに喫茶の習慣が伝えられると、痛風の症状を緩和できたり予防できるとして、盛んに喫茶が流行・奨励された。

なお当時の緑茶が、日本・中国などのアジアでしか生産されていなかった事もあり、大変贅沢な療法とされ、オランダが日本産や中国産の、イギリスが中国産の緑茶を独占的に扱っていたため、緑茶が高価 過ぎて手が出せない事情から、フランスやドイツでは、コーヒーの飲用が流行したという。

紅茶は、保存に便利で効果の程は緑茶と大きく変わらないとして、後々のイギリスにおける紅茶 文化 発展の元となった。


今日では、これらの飲料は大変安価なものになったため、気軽に試せる民間 療法ではあるが、前記の通り、現代医学の上では問題点も提起されているし、何より飲み過ぎれば安眠を阻害することにも繋がる。

また、尿酸値を下げることが発作のリスクを抑えるという観点から、肝 機能 向上(中性脂肪を減らし、肝臓内に蓄えられているプリン体自体を減らす)と腎 機能 向上(腎臓の負担を減らし、効率的に尿酸の排出をうながす)は重要な療法といえる。

すいみん【睡眠】ねむる こと。ねむり。周期的に繰り返す、意識を喪失する生理的な状態。

具体的には、散歩などの有 酸素 運動、低塩分、低カロリーな食事、カリウムを多く含む食品の摂取、十分な水分補給と入浴、睡眠などが効果があるとされる。

アメリカでは尿酸値を下げる効果と痛風 発作の痛みを緩和する効果があるといわれるアメリカン・チェリーは、アントシアニンなどのポリフェノール類が働いているといわれている(効果はあるようだが、まだ臨床と研究段階でメカニズムは解明されていない)。

経験的な民間 療法として、スライスした生たまねぎを半分から一個分、水にさらさずに食べることにより、発作時の劇的な痛みを軽減し、また痛みの続く期間を短くするという説がある。

よくせい【抑制】おさえとどめること。

また、日常的に摂取することにより、発作を抑え、痛風 体質の改善にも高い効果があると言われている。これは、たまねぎに多く含まれているクェルセチンの 炎症 抑制 効果 と、尿酸の増加を抑制する効果のためではないかと言われている。ただし、生のたまねぎの摂取は、体質によって胃が痛むなどの副作用もあり、この点には注意が必要である。